Molecularly imprinted electrochemical sensor based on disposable pencil graphite electrode for selective determination of the World Anti-Doping Agency-prohibited masking agent probenecid in biological matrices

Document Type

Article

Publication Date

2026

Abstract

Probenecid is classified by World Anti-Doping Agency as a prohibited masking agent due to its ability to alter the renal excretion of doping drugs like performance-enhancing substances. Accurate and selective detection of probenecid in athletes' biological samples is of high importance to prevent falsification of doping control tests. In this work, a green electrochemical sensor was developed for the selective determination of probenecid in biological matrices, representing the first voltammetric method for the determination of probenecid. The sensor was fabricated by the electro-polymerization of two electroactive monomers mixture of methyldopa and o-phenylenediamine onto the surface of a pencil graphite electrode. The surface morphology and elemental composition of the fabricated sensor were characterized using scanning electron microscopy and energy-dispersive X-ray analysis, while its electrochemical characterization was assessed by cyclic voltammetry. Differential pulse voltammetry was applied for quantification of the drug in biological matrices. The developed sensor exhibited a linear response over a concentration range of 10.0–1000.0 nM with satisfactory recovery and %RSD when applied to spiked human urine and plasma samples. The sensor demonstrated high selectivity toward probenecid even in the presence of different interferents, confirming its potential applicability for doping control analysis. The environmental impact, analytical performance, and practical applicability of the developed method were evaluated using different sustainability assessment metrics, including the Green Analytical Procedure Index and the Analytical Greenness Metric, Blue Applicability Grade Index, Violet Innovation Grade Index and the Red, Green and Blue model. © 2026 Elsevier B.V.

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